Indigenous Hidalgo: At the Crossroads between Two Cultures (Otomí and Náhuatl)
The Mexican State of Hidalgo is located in Mexico’s Central Plateau and shares common borders with San Luis Potosí on the north, Puebla on the east, Tlaxcala on the southeast, the state of Mexico on the south, Querétaro on the west, and Veracruz on the northeast. Politically, Hidalgo is divided into eighty-four municipios and has a surface area of 20,813 square kilometers, or 1.1% of the national territory, making it the twenty-sixth largest state of Mexico.
With a population of about 2,858,359 inhabitants in 2010, Hidalgo is ranked 17th in population among the states and Distrito Federal (Mexico City). The capital of Hidalgo is Pachuca, which is located 101 kilometers (63 miles) north of Mexico City and had a population of 256,584 in 2010. Pachuca’s name was derived from the term Patiachiucan, which in the Náhuatl language means “narrow place.”
Geographic Regions of Hidalgo
Crossed by the Eastern Sierra Madre Mountains, the northern part of Hidalgo is extremely mountainous. However, in the southern and western regions of the state, one will find plains and fertile valleys that lie within Mexico’s Central Plateau. The climate is warm in the lower valleys, temperate on the Plateau, and cold in the mountains. Geographically, Hidalgo is basically split into several geographic regions, which are also illustrated in the map on the following page [Ruberyuka, “Región Geográfica del Hidalgo,” March 11, 2017]:
The Mezquital Valley (Southwest Hidalgo)
The Eastern Sierra Madre Mountains (Northwest and Northcentral Hidalgo), which includes four mountain ranges (Sierra Alta, Sierra Baja, Sierra Gorda and Sierra de Tenango).
The Huasteca (Northeast Hidalgo)
La Comarca Minera (a mining district in Central Hidalgo, which includes the capital, Pachuca)
The Mexican Plateau (southern Hidalgo)
The Valley of Tulacingo (southeastern Hidalgo)
A state with a centuries-old mining tradition, Hidalgo possesses the largest deposits of manganese in the Americas, as well as significant reserves of gold, silver, lead, copper, zinc and iron. Reserves of gypsum, cement, kaolin and refractory clays are also abundant in Hidalgo. But, in recent decades, Hidalgo has also developed into both an agricultural and industrial center.
Hidalgo’s Physiographic Provinces
Hidalgo’s state surface is part of the following two provinces which are described below and illustrated in the Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía (INEGI) map on the following page:
The Sierra Madre Oriental Province occupies 45.21% of the state surface, covering the northcentral and eastern parts of the entity and including four mountain ranges (Sierra Alta, Sierra Baja, Sierra Gorda and Sierra de Tenango). This region consists of high summits broken by valleys and narrow ravines. The northeastern corner of this province includes La Huasteca, which is a flat and low region named after the Huastecos indigenous group.
The Neovolcánico Axis (Eje Neovolcánico) Province occupies 53.46% of the state territory, covering the south central part of the entity. This province includes the Mezquital Valley in the southwest and the mining region in the south center of the state. The southeastern part of this province is made up of large volcanic mountains with interspersed lake basins. The entire Neovolcanic Axis — also known as the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt — is a volcanic belt that crosses central Mexico from Colima and Jalisco in the west to central Veracruz in the east.
Pre-Hispanic Indigenous Groups
In pre-Hispanic times, a wide range of indigenous tribes, including Otomí, Tepehua, Mazahua and Náhuatl speakers, inhabited various parts of the present-day state of Hidalgo. Much of what is now Hidalgo was inhabited by the Otomíes for centuries until the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries, when most of this region was conquered by the Náhuatl-speaking Mexica and incorporated into the Aztec Empire.
The Otomí (The Sierra Nahñu)
The Otomí language is a large, very diverse linguistic group with a strong cultural tradition throughout much of central and eastern Mexico. The Otomí (who call themselves Nahñu, or Hñahñu) belong to the seventh most common language group in Mexico and presently occupy portions of the states of Hidalgo, México, Puebla, Tlaxcala, Veracruz, Querétaro and Michoacán.
At one time, the Otomí held a great deal of power and prestige throughout east central Mexico. However, the rise of the Aztec Empire led to a steady decline of the Otomíes during the Fourteenth and Fifteenth centuries. Nahñu belongs to the Otopamean language family, a subfamily of the very large Otomanguean Linguistic Group. (Most of the Oaxacan indigenous groups — including the Zapotecs and Mixtecs — belong to this language family.) However, linguistic studies indicate that the Otomí split from the ancestral Otomanguean Group about 6,500 years ago. Today, the Otomí language family comprises seven languages: Otomi (proper), Mazahua, Matlatzinca, Ocuiltec, Southern Pame, Northern Pame, and Chichimec Jonaz.
The Náhuatl Languages of Hidalgo
The Náhuatl people are the single largest indigenous group in Hidalgo and in the entire Mexican Republic. Although Nahuas live in all the states of the Mexican Republic, each of the 28 or so Náhuatl languages and dialects has developed unique characteristics depending on its environmental conditions. It is believed that the earliest Nahua speakers arrived in Hidalgo area as early as the Twelfth Century. At the time of the Spanish contact, Náhuatl-speaking Indians inhabited several regions of Hidalgo, largely due to the fact that the Aztec Empire ruled over a considerable part of the region.
Mazahua
The Mazahua, a principal tribe of the Otomian linguistic family, lives in the western portion of the State of México, as well as some adjoining territory in Michoacán, Querétaro and southwestern Hidalgo. In 1521, the Mazahua aligned themselves with the Spanish troops and joined them to help fight the Aztecs.
The Huastecos
The Huastecos — also known as Teenek — represent the northernmost extension of the Mayan language family in Mexico. Several scholars have written about the separation of the Teenek from the rest of the Maya family, theorizing that the Huastecos probably arrived in the Veracruz-Puebla-Querétaro region about 3,500 years ago, an area they shared with Nahua, Tepehua, and Otomí peoples by the time of the Spaniards’ arrival. The Huastecs were organized into small feudal states governed by rulers who had absolute authority over their subjects. Today the Hausteco presently occupy about 55 municipios in northern Veracruz, northern Puebla, eastern Hidalgo, southeastern San Luis Potosí, and southern Tamaulipas.
The Huasteca Region
The “Huasteca” is a huge and historically important region of northeastern Mexico once inhabited mainly by the Huastec Indians when their civilization was at its height in the Mesoamerican period. Today this topographically and climatically diverse area is considered a rich agricultural region with an abundance of water from the riverine systems flowing to the Gulf. The Huasteca includes the northeast corner of Hidalgo. Although the Huastecos and Náhuatl still occupy some areas of the current Huasteca, mestizo populations extensively replaced them in many areas during the Spanish colonial period.
The Tepehua
The Tepehua Indians occupy two regions: a band stretching from Huehuetla in Hidalgo, northwestward through Tlachichilco in Veracruz, where the Tepehua are surrounded by Otomí and mestizo settlements. The name “Tepehua” may be derived from either of the Nahua words tepetl (mountain) or ueialtepetl (town dweller). The Tepehua religion retains beliefs and practices that are rooted in their pre-Hispanic past. It is believed that the remoteness of Tepehua territory played some role in the failure of evangelists to convert the Tepehua during the colonial era. The Tepehua of the present day era are primarily engaged in agriculture. In the 2010 census, of the 1,818 Tepehua speakers 3 years of age or older living in the State of Hidalgo, 1,680 individuals (or 92.4%) lived in the Municipio of Huehuetla.
The Aztec Empire
The Aztec Empire of 1519 was the most powerful Mesoamerican kingdom of all time. The multi-ethnic, multi-lingual realm stretched for more than 80,000 square miles through many parts of what is now central and southern Mexico. Fifteen million people, living in thirty-eight provinces and residing in 489 communities, paid tribute to the Emperor Moctezuma II in Tenochtitlán, the capital city of the great empire. The present-day state of Hidalgo was occupied by several Aztec provinces: Axocopan, Atotonilco, Xilotepec, and Chiapan.
Axocopan Province (Valley of Mezquital)
The province of Axocopan was located within the plateau area known as the Valley of Mezquital. This region was primarily occupied by Otomí Indians, and by a lesser number of Pame Indians (who belonged to the Chichimec Indians). Axocopan was first conquered by Mexica emperor, Moctezuma Ilhuicamina, who ruled over the Aztec Empire from 1440 to 1464. The primary crops grown in this region were maguey and nopal.
Xilotepec Province (Western Hidalgo)
Located west of Axocopan, the Aztec province of Xilotepec was one of the largest provinces of the Aztec Empire, containing at least 47 towns in an area of more than 4,000 square kilometers (about 1,544 square miles). Xilotepec was originally part of an Otomí kingdom located in the frontier area between the central Mexican Nahua-speaking Indians and the Chichimec Indians of the north and northwest. Although the Otomí put up a fierce resistance, Xilotepec was eventually captured. In order to fortify the area against Chichimeca incursions, the Mexica maintained garrisons in the city of Xilotepec and several smaller frontier towns.
Atotonilco (Southeastern Hidalgo)
The Aztec province of Atotonilco was located immediately north of the Valley of Mexico and was primarily occupied by Otomí and Mazahua Indians. Atotonilco stretched from the high plateau country to the mountains of the eastern Sierra Madre. Although most of Atotonilco was Otomí country, some Tepehua and Náhuatl speakers lived in the area too. This area, in which maguey and nopal were the primary crops, was also conquered by Moctezuma Ilhuicamina. The Mexica recognized the Otomíes as expert farmers and hunters and required tribute from them in the form of foodstuffs.
Chiapan (Southern Hidalgo)
The Chiapan strategic province was a group of states lying between the provinces of Axocopan, Atotonilco and Xilotepec, but also included what is now the border area between Hidalgo and the State of Mexico. Both Otomí and Náhuatl were spoken by the people in this area.
Tula
The town of Tula (Tollan) ‒ some 55 miles (90 kilometers) north of Mexico City ‒ was the site of one of the greatest civilizations in Mexican history: the Toltecs. Tula was called Namenhí (Place of Many People) by the Otomí Indians. It is believed that Tula existed as a center of Toltec civilization for more than four centuries until it was abandoned in 1156 before the rise of the Aztecs. An agricultural crisis triggered Tula’s decline, which culminated in its capture by marauding Otomíes and Chichimeca Indians.
Tula was eventually conquered by the Mexica and became a strategic part of the Aztec province of Chiapan. Boasting cultural elements from diverse sources, Tula became an important spiritual center and an important pilgrimage center for the Mexica of Tenochtitlán. The regional economy was dependent upon maguey production, as well as lime and wood.
Pachuca
Pachuca, which is in southern Hidalgo, was founded in 1488 and was located in Otomí territory, with a Náhuatl-speaking minority and probably a small amount of Pame Chichimecs. The Spaniards arrived here in late 1519 and controlled the region by the spring of 1521. Pachuca has always been linked strongly to mining. Pachuca, which continues to be an important mining center today, has been nicknamed La Bella Airosa (The Windy City) because during most of the year there are strong northeastern winds that can reach up to 75 kilometers per hour.
Metztitlán (Northern Hidalgo)
Metztitlán was a powerful Otomí state located in the rugged mountainous region of what is now northern Hidalgo, Metztitlán remained an unconquered enclave within the Aztec Empire up until the arrival of the Spaniards in 1519. The independence of this small kingdom was easily maintained because of the nature of the terrain in the Metztitlán Valley, where, writes Professor Michael Smith, “a small but well-placed force could hold off a larger and more powerful army.”
Emperors Ahuítzotl and Moctezuma were able to isolate Metztitlán by conquering most of the territory surrounding it. Professor Smith believes that the state remained unconquered because “there were few resources of interest to the empire in this area, and the final emperors may have decided that Metztitlán was not worth the effort.” Metztitlán was one of four enclaves either partly or fully surrounded by the Aztec Empire. The map on the following page shows the Aztec Empire and its three major cities (The Triple Alliance: Tenochtitlan, Texcoco and Tlacopan) at the time of the Spanish contact [Source: Comandante, Wikipedia U. E. “Aztec Empire.” Ancient History Encyclopedia. Online: https://www.ancient.eu/image/2321/ (Last modified February 26, 2014)].
In this map, Metztitlán is the farthest northern enclave:
The Destruction of the Aztec Empire (1519-1521)
Spanish forces under the command of Captain Hernán Cortés landed on the Gulf Coast near present-day Veracruz in April 1519. After establishing La Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz (The Rich Town of the True Cross) in June, Cortés made plans to move west and confront the Aztec Emperor, Moctezuma II, in his capital, Tenochtitlán, the seat of power for the entire Aztec Empire.
On August 16, 1519, Cortés assembled a massive army for an expedition inland. He had a force of at least 400 Spanish soldiers, 150 Cuban Indian servants, 1,300 allied indigenous warriors and seven pieces of artillery. They also had 15 horses, reserved exclusively for the captains of the army. After an extended two-year campaign well-described in our history books, Cortés took control of Tenochtitlán in August 1521.
The Conquest of Hidalgo
In 1520, Captain-General Hernán Cortés was the first European to cross through the territory of Hidalgo, as he led his campaign against Tenochtitlán and the Aztec Empire. By the spring of 1521, the Spaniards gained control of this area. Sometime around 1523, the first Franciscan missionaries began their spiritual conquest of the Indians in this region.
Colonial Hidalgo
By the 18th century, the economy of Hidalgo was dominated by mining and agricultural haciendas. Much of the agricultural production during the colonial period was centered on livestock such as sheep and pigs as well as the making of pulque from the native maguey plant. However, the mining of silver, gold and other metals in the Pachuca/Real del Monte area would become the economic backbone of the area through the colonial period and beyond.
Hidalgo is Separated from Estado de Mexico
The state of Hidalgo is named after the man who began Mexico’s Independence struggle, Father Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla. For most of the Nineteenth Century, Hidalgo was a part of the State of México. However, in order to resolve certain administration problems, on January 16th, 1860, President Benito Juárez decreed that the northern area of Mexico State would become a federation in its own right. It remained a part of México until January 15, 1869, when it was established as a separate state in honor of the revolutionary patriot.
Indigenous Hidalgo (1895-1910)
In the 1895 Mexican census, 169,885 individuals five years of age and older living in the state of Hidalgo spoke indigenous languages, representing 30.4% of the state’s population. This figure increased to 177,806 in 1900, but dropped to 170,148 in the 1910 census, as the Mexican Revolution began to take shape.
By 1910, Hidalgo had the fifth-largest indigenous-speaking population among the Mexican states and the fourth largest percentage of indigenous speakers.
Hidalgo in the 1921 Mexican Census
In the unusual 1921 Mexican census, residents of each state were asked to classify themselves in several categories, including “indígena pura” (pure indigenous), “indígena mezclada con blanca” (indigenous mixed with white) and “blanca” (white). Out of a total state population of 622,241, 245,704 persons (or 39.5%) claimed to be of pure indigenous background. Another 320,250, or 51.5% – classified themselves as being mixed, while only 54,977 (8.8%) claimed to be white.
Hidalgo in the 2010 Census
In the 2010 Mexican census, there were 369,549 persons 3 years of age and more who spoke indigenous languages in the State of Hidalgo. Hidalgo had the seventh largest indigenous-speaking population among the states and the sixth largest percentage of indigenous speakers (14.8%), following Oaxaca (33.8%), Yucatán (29.6%), Chiapas (27.3%), Quintana Roo (16.2%) and Guerrero (15.2%).
Hidalgo’s Indigenous Languages in 2010
The most widely spoken languages in Hidalgo in 2010 were:
Náhuatl (245,153 indigenous speakers ‒ 66.3% of all indigenous speakers)
Otomí (115,869 indigenous speakers ‒ 31.4% of all indigenous speakers)
Tepehua (1,818 indigenous speakers ‒ 0.5% of all indigenous speakers)
Mixteco (677 indigenous speakers ‒ 0.2% of all indigenous speakers)
Zapoteco (533 indigenous speakers ‒ 0.1% of all indigenous speakers)
Totonaco (498 indigenous speakers ‒ 0.1% of all indigenous speakers)
Mazahua (222 indigenous speakers ‒ 0.1% of all indigenous speakers)
Most of the Mixteco and Zapoteco speakers in Hidalgo either migrated from Oaxaca or were the children of migrants from Oaxaca or Guerrero. We have reproduced a map showing the municipios with a significant concentration of indigenous language speakers below [Source: Ruben Castillo Angeles et al. Hidalgo: La Entidad Donde Vivo: Tercer Grado. Distrito Federal, Mexico: Secretaría de Educación Pűblica, 2011, p. 28].
Municipios with the Largest Percentage of Indigenous Speakers
Among the 84 municipios of the State of Hidalgo, only four have indigenous speaking populations that represent 5% or more of their total population. Three of the four municipios lie in Hidalgo’s Huasteca Region and are on the border with Veracruz where the Náhuatl language is fairly prevalent.
In 2010, 69,578 persons living in Huejutla de Reyes were speakers of indigenous languages 3 years and old. These indigenous speakers ‒ representing 18.8% of the total municipio population ‒ are nearly all Náhuatl speakers. Huejutla de Reyes has been known as “the Heart of La Huasteca” and is located in the northeastern region of Hidalgo along the border with Veracruz.
Ixmiquilpan had 31,249 indigenous speakers 3 years of age or older, representing 8.5% of the municipio’s total population. The municipio is located on the Mexico City/Nuevo Laredo Highway in the central west part of the state of Hidalgo. Nearly all of its indigenous-speaking population are Otomíes and the capital city is recognized as an ancient Otomí capital.
San Felipe Orizatlán had 22,874 indigenous speakers 3 years of age or older, representing 6.2% of the municipio population. It is also in the northeastern Huasteca region of Hidalgo and is adjacent to the two states of San Luis Potosí y Veracruz.
The municipio of Yahualica had 18,442 indigenous speakers in 2010, representing 5.0% of the total municipio population. Yahualica is also located in northeastern Hidalgo’s Huasteca Region and borders the State of Veracruz. The indigenous populations of both Yahualica and San Felipe Orizatlán are nearly all Náhuatl speakers.
The Náhuatl Language in Present-Day Hidalgo
The Nahua are the largest indigenous group in Mexico. At the time of the 2010 census, 1,544,968 Mexicans five years of age and older identified as Náhuatl speakers, representing 23.1% of all indigenous speakers in the Republic. The wide dispersion of the Nahua speakers is the result of the expansion of the Aztec empire and the colonization of the conquered areas by people who spoke Náhuatl. And, after the conquest of the Aztec Empire, Náhuatl speakers accompanied the Spaniards on their expeditions of exploration and conquest as scouts, soldiers and emissaries.
The Náhuatl language in the Hidalgo-Puebla-Veracruz area has several dialects and, in some areas, these dialects are mutually unintelligible because of successive migrations of people from different cultures over a period of many centuries. In Hidalgo, the 2010 population of Náhuatl speakers was 245,153 individuals, representing over 66% of the state’s indigenous speakers. Most of the Náhuatl-speaking people of Hidalgo are mainly concentrated in northeast of Hidalgo along the border with Vera Cruz and San Luis Potosi. In many towns which are located in the Sierra Huasteca they remain monolingual, with some of them not speaking Spanish at all. Over 150,000 Nahuas live in the nine municipios that make up the Huasteca of Hidalgo: Atlapexco, Calnali, Huautla, Huazalingo, Huejutla, Jaltocán, Orizatlán, Xochiatipan, and Yahualica.
The Otomí of Hidalgo
The Otomi language in Hidalgo is second most common language in Hidalgo. The 115,869 Otomí speakers in Hidalgo represent almost one-third (31.4%) of all indigenous speakers in the state and nearly 41% of Mexico’s total Otomí population of 284,992. In contrast, the 245,153 Náhuatl speakers living in Hidalgo in 2010 represented only 16% of Mexico’s 1,544,968 Nahua speakers.
Today, the Otomí occupy several regions of Hidalgo. Highland Otomi (aka Otomí de la Sierra) is a dialect cluster spoken in the Sierra Madre Oriental highlands of Eastern Hidalgo, Western Veracruz and Northern Puebla. Another Otomí language is spoken in the Mezquital Valley, and a third one is spoken in the Sierra de Tenango, a small “horn” in the southeast that juts out to the east of the state and is nearly surrounded by the bordering states of Puebla and Veracruz.
The following map shows the present territory of the Otomí speakers across several central Mexican states, including Hidalgo, Querétaro and Estado de Mexico [Yavidaxin, “Territorio del Pueblo Indígena Otomí en los Estados del Centro de México” as derived from Comisión Nacional para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos Indígenas – Programa de Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo (2006). Published Nov. 9, 2008].
Mexico’s 2015 Intercensal Survey
In 2016, the Mexican government agency, Instituto Nacional de Estadística Geografía e Informática (INEGI), published the 2015 Intercensal Survey, which upgraded Mexico’s socio-demographic information to the midpoint between the 2010 census and the census to be carried out in 2020. With a sample size of over 6 million homes, this survey provides information on the national, state and municipio level, as of March 15th, 2015.
Considered Indigenous Classification
One of the 2015 survey questions read “De acuerdo, con su cultura, se considera indígena?” Essentially, Mexican residents were being asked if they considered themselves indigenous through their culture.
Based on the responses to this question, 36.2% of the citizens of Hidalgo considered themselves to be indigenous through their culture. Only four states had higher percentages of persons who considered themselves to be indigenous: Oaxaca (65.7%); Yucatán (65.4%); Campeche (44.5%) and Quintana Roo (44.4%).
However, while more than one-third of its population considered itself to be indigenous in 2015, only 14.2% of Hidalgo residents did, in fact, speak indigenous languages.
Hidalgo in 2016
In 2016, Hidalgo had nearly 1.2 million workers. More than half of Hidalgo’s workers (52.2%) are involved in three sectors:
Agriculture, forestry, fishing and hunting (226,673 workers – 18.9% of the total working population)
Commerce (213,089 workers – 17.8% of the total working population)
Manufacturing (185,190 workers – 15.5% of the total working population)
A state with a centuries-old mining tradition, Hidalgo possesses the largest deposits of manganese in the Americas, as well as significant reserves of gold, silver, lead, copper, zinc and iron. Reserves of gypsum, cement, kaolin and refractory clays are also abundant in Hidalgo. But, in recent years, Hidalgo has developed into both an agricultural and industrial center.
In 2016, the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of Hidalgo was 296 billion pesos, which contributed 1.6% to Mexico’s national GDP. Three economic activities accounted for just over one-half (50.8%) of Hidalgo’s GDP as outlined here:
Wholesale and Retail trade (18.9% of Hidalgo’s GDP)
Manufacturing (18.8% of Hidalgo’s GDP)
Real Estate and Rental and Leasing (13.1% of Hidalgo’s GDP)
Construction represented another tenth (10.9%) of the GDP. Hidalgo’s proximity to Mexico City has given the region a significant level of industrial development in recent decades. Today, the State of Hidalgo is home to six major industries: mining, textiles, food, auto parts, metal mechanics and oil. Hidalgo is fast becoming one of Mexico’s most important industrial centers for the assembly of public transport vehicles, including subway and railroad cars, heavy machinery, automobiles and trucks.
The Future
The future of Mexico’s indigenous languages is not certain, but there does appear to be some effort to carry on some of the nation’s ancient languages. The movement of indigenous peoples from their places of origin to other parts of Mexico will play some role in the continued decline of some languages. On the other hand, the sense of pride and cultural identity among some indigenous groups will ensure the survival of many of the languages well into the future.
Municipio Information
Descriptions and brief histories of the 84 municipios of Hidalgo can be accessed at the following link.
http://siglo.inafed.gob.mx/enciclopedia/EMM13hidalgo/index.html
Copyright © 2019 by John P. Schmal. All Rights Reserved.
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